Can biofuels become a viable, large-scale energy source?

While biofuels are no doubt an interesting alternative energy resource and can for sure substitute some of our current fossil fuel demands, is it likely that biofuels can play a major role in tomorrow’s energy consumption and significantly replace fossil fuels?

This is the question for which an answer will be attempted in this section.

This page – like all the other pages at BillDoll.com, The Billion Dollar Questions Site - is a work-in-progress and stuff will get added regularly.

Can biofuels become a viable, large-scale energy source?

In order to answer this question, let’s look at the following aspects:

What are the advantages of biofuels that make them suitable as an energy source?
What are the disadvantages of biofuels that could make them unsuitable as a large-scale energy source?
Can the disadvantages/problems be overcome?

See also the following topics under Biofuels:

1. Advantages of Biofuels

While a number of minor entities can also be considered as biofuel, the two primary divisions of biofuels are: (1) Biodiesel & (2) Bio-gasoline / ethanol. This section looks at the advantages of using Biodiesel and bio-ethanol as alternative fuels.

Primary Advantages & Benefits of Biodiesel & Bio-ethanol

· Biofuels are biodegradable (What is Biodegradability? – from Ecomall)

· They are non-toxic (Toxicity, Bioddegradabilty & Environmental Benefirs of Biodiesel - PDF)

· They have significantly fewer noxious emissions than petroleum-based diesel & gasoline, when burned (Biodiesel Emissions Data - PDF)

· They are renewable

· With a much higher flash point (Flash Point – from Univ of Arizona) than it is for petro-diesel (biodiesels have a flash point of about 160 °C), biodiesel is classified as a non-flammable liquid by the Occupational Safety and Health Administration. This property makes a vehicle fueled by pure biodiesel far safer in an accident than one powered by petroleum diesel or the explosively combustible gasoline.

Did you know? Biofuels have higher flash points, hence are less flammable than petro-diesel

More Biofuels Facts & Advantages

· Biodiesel is the only alternative fuel that runs in any conventional, unmodified diesel engine. (How Diesel Engines Work – from How Stuff Works) (Ethanol when used in significant quantities will require modifications in gasoline engines)

· Biodiesel can be used alone or mixed in any ratio with petroleum diesel fuel. The most common blend however is a mix of 20% biodiesel with 80% petroleum diesel, or "B20."

· Biodiesel is about 10% oxygen by weight and contains no sulfur. The lifecycle production and use of biodiesel produces approximately 80% less carbon dioxide emissions, and almost 100% less sulfur dioxide. Similar benefits accrue from ethanol / biogasoline as well.

· Combustion of biofuels alone provides considerable reduction (over 90% for Biodiesel) in total unburned hydrocarbons, and a 75-90% reduction in aromatic hydrocarbons. When burned in a diesel engine, biodiesel replaces the exhaust odor of petroleum diesel with the pleasant smell of popcorn or french fries. Biodiesel further provides significant reductions in particulates and carbon monoxide than petroleum diesel fuel. Thus, biofuels provide significant reduction in cancer risks. In sum, the use of biodiesel & biogasoline will also reduce the following emissions:

- carbon monoxide (Carbon Monoxide Emissions – from Carbon Monoxide Kills)

- ozone-forming-hydrocarbons

- hazardous diesel particulates of solid combustion products

- acid rain-causing sulfur dioxide (Info about Acid Rain, from EPA)

- lifecycle carbon dioxide

· The use of biodiesel can extend the life of diesel engines because it is more lubricating than petroleum diesel fuel (Biodiesel Lubricity – from University of Idaho – PDF), while fuel consumption, auto ignition, power output, and engine torque are relatively unaffected by biodiesel.

· Biofuels are safe to handle and transport because they are biodegradable, much less toxic than even table salt, and have high flashpoints of about 300 F compared to gasoline and petroleum diesel fuel (diesel has a flash point of 125 F, for comparison). (Biodiesel Chemical Safety Data – Oxford Univ). Biodiesel has a very high flash point (300°F) making it one of the safest of all alternative fuels, from a combustibility point. (Biodiesel Flash Point – from Biodiesel Now Forums)

· Biodiesel has almost the same MPG rating as petrodiesel

· Biodiesel readily blends and stays blended with petrodiesel.

· Biodiesel boasts of a zero total emissions production facility

· Neatvegetable oils pose some problems when subjected to prolonged usagein CI engine. These problems are attributed to high viscosity,low volatility and polyunsaturated character of the neat vegetable oils, and can be reduced significantly by subjecting the vegetableoils to the process of transesterification.

Useful Links: Biodiesel Factsheet, see a picture of biofuels plant & machinery from Sugar Research Institute, Australia

Fun Facts – Instead of the nauseating and unhealthy smell of petro-diesel emissions, the sweet-smelling emissions from biodiesel will more likely resemble the smell of French fries!

2. Problems with / Disadvantages of Biofuels

While biofuels have myriad advantages and benefits, there is a flip side as well. This section provides inputs on the various (perceived) disadvantages of biofuels, as well as problems that have been reported while using biofuels.

Inputs are provided separately for Biodiesel and ethanol fuel.

Did you know? The worldwide vegetable oil production is only a tiny fraction of the total petroleum used today

Disadvantages of / Problems with Biodiesel

· It is currently (2007 data) more expensive (see also: Biodiesel – Performance, Costs & Use – from the Dept of Energy, Govt of USA)

· Disadvantages of using biodiesel produced from agricultural crops involve additional land use, as land area is taken up and various agricultural inputs with their environmental effects are inevitable. Switching to biodiesel on a large scale requires considerable use of our arable area. Even modest usages of biodiesel would consume almost all cropland in some countries in Europe! If the same thing is to happen all over the world, the impact on global food supply could be a major concern, and could make some countries being net importers of food products, from their current status of net exporters! It Could so happen that most lands on the planet are deployed to produce food for cars, not people! ( see also: Biodiesel & Deforestation, Amount of Biodiesel That Could be Produced from Available Land in the UK – An Estimate)

· It gives out more nitrogen oxide emissions (Nitrogen oxide emissions from biodiesel blends could possibly be reduced by blending with kerosene or Fischer-Tropsch diesel) (NOx & Biodiesel – Journey to Forever, Study Shows NOx Emissions Reduction in Biodiesel with Additives – PDF)

· Transportation & storage of biodiesel require special management. Some properties of biodiesel make it undesirable for use at high concentrations. For example, pure biodiesel doesn't flow well at low temperatures, which can cause problems for customers with outdoor storage tanks in colder climates. A related disadvantage is that biodiesel, because of its nature, can’t be transported in pipelines. It has to be transported by truck or rail, which increases the cost.

· Biodiesel is less suitable for use in low temperatures, than petrodiesel. The “cloud point” is the temperature at which a sample of the fuel starts to appear cloudy, indicating that wax crystals have begun to form. At even lower temperatures, the fuel becomes a gel that cannot be pumped. The “pour point” is the temperature below which the fuel will not flow. As the cloud and pour points for biodiesel are higher than those for petroleum diesel, the performance of biodiesel in cold conditions is markedly worse than that of petroleum diesel. At low temperatures, diesel fuel forms wax crystals, which can clog fuel lines and filters in a vehicle’s fuel system. Vehicles running on biodiesel blends may therefore exhibit more drivability problems at less severe winter temperatures than do vehicles running on petroleum diesel.

· Another disadvantage of biodiesel is that it tends to reduce fuel economy. Energy efficiency is the percentage of the fuel’s thermal energy that is delivered as engine output, and biodiesel has shown no significant effect on the energy efficiency of any test engine. The energy content per gallon of biodiesel is approximately 11 percent lower than that of petroleum diesel. Vehicles running on biodiesel are therefore expected to achieve about 10% fewer miles per gallon of fuel than petrodiesel.

· There have been a few concerns regarding biodiesel’s impact on engine durability

· Biodiesel has excellent solvent properties. Hence, any deposits in the filters and in the delivery systems may be dissolved by biodiesel and result in need for replacement of the filters. Petroleum diesel forms deposits in vehicular fuel systems, and because biodiesel can loosen those deposits, they can migrate and clog fuel lines and filters.

· The solvent property of biodiesel could also cause other fuel-system problems. Biodiesel may be incompatible with the seals used in the fuel systems of older vehicles and machinery, necessitating the replacement of those parts if biodiesel blends are used.

Links on Biodiesel Disadvantages

· Biodiesel Suffers an Image Setback

· Colorado Region has Problems with Biodiesel

· Truckers Report Problems with Biodiesel

· Biodiesel Fuels between Acceptance & Quality (PDF)

· Environmental Evaluation of Biofuels – Takes a Life Cycle Analysis Approach (PDF)

· Feeding Cars, not People – George Monibot

· Problems in Biofuel Utilisation – A Swedish Perspective (PDF)

· Possibilities & Performance of International Biofuel Trade – from CEEC to WEC (PDF)

Did you know? Biodiesel solidifies at a higher temperature than that for petrodiesel

Links on Biofuel & Biodiesel Sustainability & Economics

The following web resources focus on the economics, cost-benefits & sustainability of bio-fuels in general and biodiesel in particular.

· Academic Study Discredits Ethanol, Biodiesel – from Renewable Energy Access (see the original study document here)

· International Resource Costs of Biodiesel & Bioethanol, Dept of Transport, Govt of UK (PDF)

· Energy Balance – from Piedmont Biofuels

· Biofuel, some Numbers – from Grist

· Interesting Blog Comments on Energy Efficiencies of Biofuel and Bio-diesel – Future Pundit (skip the article and see the comments!)

· Biodiesel Experiment (PDF)

· Feasibility of Biodiesel from Waste/Recycled Greases & Animal Fats (PDF)

· The Economic Efficiency of Production & Use of Biodiesel – Report from Estonia (PDF)

· Biodiesel – European Overview (PDF)

· Ethanol Production Sustainability Issues for Saskatchewan

· Sustainability of Brazilian bio-ethanol - Universiteit Utrecht, Copernicus Institute Department of Science, Aug 2006 Research Paper (PDF)

· Sustainability of ethanol from Brazil in the context of demanded biofuels imports by The Netherlands –

Délcio Rodrigues and Lúcia Ortiz – A October 2006 Paper (PDF)

· Is Ethanol in America’s Future? Experts Discuss at Aspen Institute - Three leading energy industry experts led a conversation on the potential of ethanol at the Aspen Institute headquarters in Washington, DC, March 30, 2006

· Sustainability of the Corn-Ethanol Biofuel Cycle - Tad W. Patzek - Department of Civil and Environmental Engineering, U.C. Berkeley (May 2004) - PDF Format

· Economics of Ethanol – Risk & Profit – from a 2001 conference (PDF)

· The Economics & Politics of Bioenergy - David S. Bullock and Peter Goldsmith - University of Illinois, Dept. of Agricultural and Consumer Economics (PDF)

· Facts about Ethanol – Economics of Ethanol, Environment & Ethanol, and more

· On-farm Biodiesel Production from Waste Vegetable Oil (PDF)

· The Economics of Engine Replacement/Repair for Biodiesel Fuels (PDF)

· Energy Use & Emissions from Bio-fuels – University of California, Davis (PDF)

· Biofuels – Is it Worth Considering? (PDF)

· Growing Biodiesel in North Dakota (PDF)

· Basic Biodiesel Economics – from Entropy Production

· Biodiesel Economics in Brazil (PDF)

· Biofuels around the World – Canadian Renewable Fuels Association

· Biodiesel Education – Economic Considerations – from Iowa State University

· Biodiesel Economics – from University of Alberta, Canada (PDF)

· Biodiesel Production, Costs & Use – Department of Energy, Govt of USA (PDF)

· Biofuel Info from the Government of New Zealand (PDF)

· Cost Implications of Feedstock Combinations for Community Sized Bio-diesel Production (PDF)

· A Study on the Feasibility of Biodiesel Production in Georgia (PDF)

· Biodiesel in British Columbia – a Feasibility Study

· Biodiesel – the Sustainability Dimension – from ATTRA (PDF)

· The Uncertain Future of Bio-diesel – from the Dominion, Canada

· Department of Agricultural Economics – Kansas State University

· Biodiesel – An Industry Poised for Growth? Choices Magazine

· Research Activities on Bio-diesel @ Indian Institute of Petroleum (PPT format)

· Cost Benefit Analysis of Adoption of Biodiesel in Diesel Fuel (PDF)

· Costs of Biodiesel Production – from Govt of New Zealand (PDF)

· Potential Niche Fuel Markets for Biodiesel (PDF)

· Biodiesel – Fuel for Thought, Fuel for Connecticut’s Future (PDF)

· Testing the Biodiesel Bandwagon

· Feasibility of Biodiesel from Waste Recycled Grease and Animal Fats (PDF)

· Ethanol vs Biodiesel vs Gasoline – the Environment Forum

· Industry Argues that Ethanol Delivers – from A Journey to Forever

· Biodiesel Basics – from Utah Biodiesel

· Opportunities in Community-Scale Biodiesel (PDF)

· The Case for Biodiesel – Washington University (PDF)

· Cost of Biodiesel vs Regular Diesel – from Oregon Biofuels

· An Economic Analysis of Small-scale Biodiesel Production (PDF)

· Economics of Jatropha Biodiesel

· Biodiesel – The Sustainability Dimensions (PDF)

· Biodiesel Economics – University of Alberta, Canada (PDF)

· Comparison of LCA & External Cost Analysis for Biodiesel & Diesel (PDF)

· Comparison of the Externalities of the Biodiesel Fuel Chains & Other Fuel Chains (PDF)

· International Resource Costs of Bioethanol & Biodiesel

· Costs of Biodiesel Production – Govt of New Zealand (PDF)

· WA Sustainability Case Studies – Biodiesel

· Problems in Biofuel Utilisation – A Swedish Perspective (PDF)

· Biodiesel – The Sustainability Dimension

· The Real Biofuel Cycles – University of California, Berkeley (PDF)

· Biodiesel Begins to Make Economic Sense – University of Arkansas

· Brazil’s Biofuel Plan is not Sustainable

· Amount of Biodiesel That Could be Produced from Available Land in the UK – An Estimate

· Biodiesel – Bad Idea – Grist.org

Biodiesel & Environment

· How Green is the New Biodiesel Movement?

· Green Technology isn’t Always Green – from USA Today

· Biodiesel & Deforestation

Reducing the Cost of Biodiesel

· Economic Feasibility for Community-scale Farmer Cooperatives for Biodiesel

· Production of Cost-competitive Biodiesel Fuel

Problems with / Disadvantages of Ethanol as Biofuel / Bio-gasoline

The following links provide inputs for the disadvantages for using ethanol as biofuel:

· Ethanol – Viable Fuel Options or Green Pipe Dream

· The Many Problems for Ethanol from Corn – Just How Unsustainable Is It? (PDF)

· Ethanol – Myths & Realities

· Ethanol FAQ – from Ethanol.org

· The Truth about Hybrids, Ethanol & Hydrogen (PDF)

3. Can the Above-mentioned Problems be Solved / Overcome?

Some of the problems can be taken care of, while some others cannot be, at least as things stand right now.

Issues pertaining to toxic emissions could possibly be taken care of by innovative designs and technology, but the two problems that appear quite daunting are:

(a) Land Availability for Biofuel Production - In order for biofuels from conventional bio-feedstock to replace today’s petro products completely, it will take almost the entire arable area of our earth! It is unlikely that there can be such vast advances in yields in the next 20-30 years for this problem to be mitigated. And remember, we need land to grow crops for our food as well!

(b) Ecological Concerns - Large-scale cultivation of these bio-feedstocks can result in massive ecological damage – such as cutting down of the rainforests in South America.

How are biofuel pioneers around the world trying to overcome the above two problems?

(a) On the one hand, researchers & Biofuel professionals around the world are trying to identify the best bio-feedstocks. For instance, palm oil is a relatively more efficient feedstock than, say, soybeans for Biodiesel, owing to the much larger yields of palm oil. This has made many Biodiesel practitioners try their hands at palm, canola oil, jatropha oil etc. While a reprioritizing could help mitigate the problem of low yields of feedstocks, it still implies that biofuels will not be in a position to replace more than a small percentage (less than 10%) of fossil fuels for the foreseeable future.

(b) Another method being researched appears to have much better potential: Scientists and researchers are trying out completely new / non-traditional feedstocks. For instance, one of the solutions that appear to hold promise is producing Biodiesel from algae instead of traditional oil crops & producing ethanol from cellulose rather than from corn or sugarcane. Why? The yields of oil from algae are orders of magnitude higher than that for soybeans or even palm. Similarly, switchgrass as a starting point for ethanol (instead of sugarcane or corn) appears to provide much higher yields, though the difference is not as high as that for algae over other feedstock for Biodiesel. See Oilgae for more inputs on algae-based Biodiesel.

Links & Web Resources on Solutions to Make Biofuels Sustainable

Innovation to Improve the Sustainability of Bio-ethanol - Nedalco B.V. is, in cooperation with several Dutch

research institutes, developing an innovative new technology for ethanol production from lignocellulosic

biomass. As part of this development, CE conducted an environmental performance scan of both the current

and the future ethanol production technology. This paper briefly describes the technological improvements

that are essential to this development. (PDF)

Biofuels Reference

What is a biofuel?

Did you know? Biofuels could be either from plants or animals!

Biofuel is any fuel that derives from biomass — recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts. Thus it could be oils from plants, manure from cows, wood from trees and so on. It is a renewable energy source (NREL, Renewable Energy.com), unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal and nuclear fuels. (see: Biomass Energy Home Page, Dept of Energy, Govt of USA, Biomass Research Home Page - NREL, Bio-mass Introduction from TERI, India, Biomass Energy – The Energy Story, Govt of Canada, Biomass - from Wikipedia)

History of Biofuels

Agricultural products specifically grown for use as biofuels include corn and soybeans, primarily in the United States, and flaxseed and rapeseed, primarily in Europe. Waste from industry, agriculture, forestry, and households can also be used to produce bioenergy; examples include straw, lumber, manure, sewage, garbage and food leftovers. Most biofuel is burned to release its stored chemical energy (Is it Easy to Store Energy?), though research is active into more efficient methods of converting biofuels and other fuels into electricity (see Biomass 101 – Apollo Alliance) utilizing fuel cells (see: Fuel Cells .org, How Fuel Cells Work – from How Stuff Works).

The production of biofuels to replace petroleum-based oil and natural gas is in active development. The carbon in biofuels was recently extracted from atmospheric carbon dioxide by growing plants, so burning it does not result in a net increase of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere (see: Atmospheric Carbon-dioxide). As a result, biofuels are seen by many as a way to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by using them to replace non-renewable sources of energy.

To summarise, biofuels are fuels derived from plants and animals. Let’s call the plant-based biofuels as botafuels and the animal-based ones as zoofuels.

Botafuels

Biofuels from plants could be derived from plant oils, leaves, wood and twigs, and related plant extracts.

Zoofuels

Biofuels from animals could be from animal fats/lipids, and from the animal waste.

More Biofuel Links

Biofuel Guides

· Bio-fuels Made Easy – from Luigi Life Science (PDF)

Fuel from the Fields – Australian Agronomy Conference

Unique Bio-fuels

· Using Milk Waste as Biofuel – Talk Energy

· Cassava as Biofuel

· Bio-battery Runs on Shots of Vodka

Fun Facts - There are plans to turn dog poop into Biofuel! (see here). A prison in Rwanda gets half its fuel from human waste! ( see here)

Content Derived from Wikipedia Article on Biofuels

Biofuel is any fuel that is derived from biomass — recently living organisms or their metabolic byproducts, such as manure from cows. It is a renewable energy source, unlike other natural resources such as petroleum, coal, and nuclear fuels.

One definition of biofuel is any fuel with an 80% minimum content by volume of materials derived from living organisms harvested within the ten years preceding its manufacture

Like coal and petroleum, biomass is a form of stored solar energy. The energy of the sun is "captured" through the process of photosynthesis in growing plants. (See also: Systems ecology) One advantage of biofuel in comparison to most other fuel types is it is biodegradable, and thus relatively harmless to the environment if spilled.

Agricultural products specifically grown for use as biofuels include corn and soybeans, primarily in the United States; as well as flaxseed and rapeseed, primarily in Europe; sugar cane in Brazil and palm oil in South-East Asia. Biodegradable outputs from industry, agriculture, forestry, and households can also be used to produce bioenergy; examples include straw, timber, manure, rice husks, sewage, biodegradable waste, and food leftovers. These feedstocks are converted into biogas through anaerobic digestion. Biomass used as fuel often consists of underutilized types, like chaff and animal waste.

Much research is currently in progress into the utilization of microalgae as an energy source, with applications being developed for biodiesel, ethanol, methanol, methane, and even hydrogen. On the rise is use of hemp, although politics currently restrains this technology.

Paradoxically, in some industrialized countries like Germany, food is cheaper than fuel compared by price per joule. Central heating units supplied by food grade wheat or maize are available.

Biofuel can be used both for central- and decentralized production of electricity and heat. As of 2005, bioenergy covers approximately 15% of the world's energy consumption [citation needed]. Most bioenergy is consumed in developing countries and is used for direct heating, as opposed to electricity production.

The production of biofuels to replace oil and natural gas is in active development, focusing on the use of cheap organic matter (usually cellulose, agricultural and sewage waste) in the efficient production of liquid and gas biofuels which yield high net energy gain. The carbon in biofuels was recently extracted from atmospheric carbon dioxide by growing plants, so burning it does not result in a net increase of carbon dioxide in the Earth's atmosphere. As a result, biofuels are seen by many as a way to reduce the amount of carbon dioxide released into the atmosphere by using them to replace non-renewable sources of energy.

Noticeable is the fact that the quality of timber or grassy biomass does not have a direct impact on its value as an energy-source.

Dried compressed peat is also sometimes considered a biofuel. However, it does not meet the criteria of being a renewable form of energy, or of the carbon being recently absorbed from atmospheric carbon dioxide by growing plants. Though more recent than petroleum or coal, on the time scale of human industrialisation, peat is a fossil fuel and burning it does contribute to atmospheric CO2.

History

Biofuel was used since the early days of the car industry. Nikolaus August Otto, the German inventor of the combustion engine, conceived his invention to run on ethanol. While Rudolf Diesel, the German inventor of the Diesel engine, conceived it to run on peanut oil. Henry Ford originally had designed the Ford Model T, a car produced between 1903 and 1926, to run completely on ethanol, after surreptitious efforts were successful at thwarting Ford's desires to mass produce electric cars. However, when crude oil began being cheaply extracted from deeper in the soil (thanks to oil reserves discovered in Pennsylvania and Texas), cars began using fuels from oil.

Nevertheless, before World War II, biofuels were seen as providing an alternative to imported oil in countries such as Germany, which sold a blend of gasoline with alcohol fermented from potatoes under the name Reichskraftsprit. In Britain, grain alcohol was blended with petrol by the Distillers Company Ltd under the name Discol and marketed through Esso's affiliate Cleveland.

After the War cheap Middle Eastern Oil lessened interest in biofuels. Then with the oil shocks of 1973 and 1979, there was an increase in interests from governments and academics in biofuels. However, interest decreased with the counter-shock of 1986 that made oil prices cheaper again. But since about 2000 with rising oil prices, concerns over the potential oil peak, greenhouse gas emissions (Global Warming), and instability in the Middle East are pushing renewed interest in biofuels. Government officials have made statements and given aid in favour of biofuels. For example, U.S. president George Bush said in his 2006 State of Union speech, that he wants for the United States, by 2025, to replace 75% of the oil coming from the Middle East.

Examples of biofuels

Biologically produced alcohols

Biologically produced alcohols, most commonly ethanol and methanol, and less commonly propanol and butanol are produced by the action of microbes and enzymes through fermentation — see alcohol fuel.

Methanol, which is currently produced from natural gas, can also be produced from biomass — although this is not economically viable at present. The methanol economy is an interesting alternative to the hydrogen economy.

Biomass to liquid, synthetic fuels produced from syngas. Syngas in turn, is produced from biomass by gasification.

Ethanol fuel produced from sugar cane is being used as automotive fuel in Brazil. Ethanol produced from corn is being used mostly as a gasoline additive (oxygenator) in the United States, but direct use as fuel is growing. Cellulosic ethanol is being manufactured from straw (an agricultural waste product) by Iogen Corporation of Ontario, Canada; and other companies are attempting to do the same. ETBE containing 47% Ethanol is currently the biggest biofuel contributor in Europe.

Butanol is formed by A.B.E. fermentation (Acetone, Butanol, Ethanol) and experimental modifications of the ABE process show potentially high net energy gains with butanol being the only liquid product. Butanol can be burned "straight" in existing gasoline engines (without modification to the engine or car), produces more energy and is less corrosive and less water soluble than ethanol, and can be distributed via existing infrastructures.

Mixed Alcohols (e.g., mixture of ethanol, propanol, butanol, pentanol, hexanol, and heptanol, such as EcaleneTM), obtained either by biomass-to-liquid technology (namely gasification to produce syngas followed by catalytic synthesis) or by bioconversion of biomass to mixed alcohol fuels.

GTL or BTL both produce synthetic fuels out of biomass in the so called Fischer Tropsch process. The synthetic biofuel containing oxygen is used as additive in high quality diesel and petrol.

Biologically produced gases

Biogas is produced by the process of anaerobic digestion of organic material by anaerobes. Biogas can be produced either from biodegradable waste materials or by the use of energy crops fed into anaerobic digesters to supplement gas yields. The solid output, digestate, can also be used as a biofuel.

Biogas contains methane and can be recovered in industrial anaerobic digesters and mechanical biological treatment systems. Landfill gas is a less clean form of biogas which is produced in landfills through naturally occurring anaerobic digestion. Paradoxically if this gas is allowed to escape into the atmosphere it is a potent greenhouse gas.

Biologically produced oils and gases can be produced from various wastes:

Thermal depolymerization of waste can extract methane and other oils similar to petroleum.

GreenFuel Technologies Corporation has developed a patented bioreactor system that utilizes nontoxic photosynthetic algae to take in smokestacks flue gases and produce biofuels such as biodiesel, biogas and a dry fuel comparable to coal.

Biologically produced oils

Biologically produced oils can be used in diesel engines. Biologically produced crude oil can be refined into kerosene, pertroleum, diesel and other fractions.

Straight vegetable oil (SVO)

Waste vegetable oil (WVO) — waste cooking oils and greases produced in quantity mostly by commercial kitchens

Biodiesel obtained from transesterification of animal fats and vegetable oil, directly usable in petroleum diesel engines.

Biologically derived Crude oil is produced together with biogas and carbon solids via the thermal depolymerization of complex organic materials including non oil based materials (for example waste products such as old tyres, offal, wood and plastic)

Pyrolysis oil may be produced out of biomass, wood waste etc. using heat only in the flash pyrolysis process. The oil has to be treated before using in conventional fuel systems or internal combustion engines (water + pH).

Solid biofuels

Examples include wood, charcoal, and dried dung

Applications of biofuels

One widespread use of biofuels is in home cooking and heating. Typical fuels for this are wood, charcoal, or dried dung. The biofuel may be burned on an open fireplace or in a special stove. The efficiency of this process may vary widely, from 10% for a well made fire (even less if the fire is not made carefully) up to 40% for a custom designed charcoal stove1. Inefficient use of fuel is a cause of deforestation (though this is negligible compared to deliberate destruction to clear land for agricultural use) but more importantly it means that more work has to be put into gathering fuel, thus the quality of cooking stoves has a direct influence on the viability of biofuels.

"American homeowners are turning to burning corn in special stoves to reduce their energy bills. Sales of corn-burning stoves have tripled this year [...] Corn-generated heat costs less than a fifth of the current rate for propane and about a third of electrical heat"

Transport

Biodiesel and bioethanol are widely used in automobiles and freight vehicles. For example, in Germany most diesel on sale at gas stations contains a few percent biodiesel, and many gas stations also sell 100% biodiesel -- this is typically cheaper than conventional petroleum diesel because of German tax breaks. Some supermarket chains in the UK such as Tesco have switched to running their freight fleets on 50% biodiesel, and often include biofuels in the vehicle fuels they sell to consumer, and many gas stations also sell 100% biodiesel. Biodiesel can be used in the majority of diesel vehicles without requiring any modification to the vehicle.

Direct electricity generation

The methane in biogas is often pure enough to pass directly through gas engines to generate green energy. Anaerobic digesters or biogas powerplants convert this renewable energy source into electricity. This can either be used commercially or on a local scale.

Home use

Different combustion-engines are being produced for very low prices lately [citation needed]. They allow the private house-owner to utilize low amounts of "weak" compression of methane to generate electrical and thermal power (almost) sufficient for a well insulated residential home.

Problems and solutions

Unfortunately, much cooking with biofuels is done indoors, without efficient ventilation, and using fuels such as dung causes airborne pollution. This can be a serious health hazard; 1.5 million deaths were attributed to this cause by the World Health Organisation as of 2000 2. There are various responses to this, such as improved stoves, including those with inbuilt flues and switching to alternative fuel sources. Most of these responses have difficulties. One is that fuels are expensive and easily damaged. Another is that alternative fuels tend to be more expensive, but the people who rely on biofuels often do so precisely because they cannot afford alternatives. 3 Organizations such as Intermediate Technology Development Group work to make improved facilities for biofuel use and better alternatives accessible to those who cannot currently get them. This work is done through improving ventilation, switching to different uses of biomass such as the creation of biogas from solid biomatter, or switching to other alternatives such as micro-hydro power. Many environmentalists are concerned that first growth forest may be felled in countries such as Indonesia to make way for palm oil plantations, driven by rising demand for diesel in SE Asia and Europe.

Direct biofuel

Direct biofuels are biofuels that can be used in existing unmodified petroleum engines. Because engine technology changes all the time, exactly what a direct biofuel is can be hard to define; a fuel that works without problem in one unmodified engine may not work in another engine. In general, newer engines are more sensitive to fuel than older engines, but new engines are also likely to be designed with some amount of biofuel in mind.

Straight vegetable oil can be used in some (older) diesel engines. Only in the warmest climates can it be used without engine modifications, so it is of limited use in colder climates. Most commonly it is turned into biodiesel. No engine manufacturer explicitly allows any use of vegetable oil in their engines.

Biodiesel can be a direct biofuel. In some countries manufacturers cover many of their diesel engines under warranty for 100% biodiesel use, although Volkswagen Germany, for example, ask drivers to make a telephone check with the VW environmental services department before switching to 100% biodiesel (see biodiesel use). Many people have run thousands of miles on biodiesel without problem, and many studies have been made on 100% biodiesel. In many European countries, 100% biodiesel is widely used and is available at thousands of gas stations.

Butanol is often claimed as a direct replacement for gasoline. It is not in wide spread production at this time, and engine manufacturers have not made statements about its use[verification needed]. While on paper (and a few lab tests) it appears that butanol has sufficiently similar characteristics with gasoline such that it should work without problem in any gasoline engine, no widespread experience exists.

Ethanol is the most common biofuel, and over the years many engines have been designed to run on it. Many of these could not run on regular gasoline. It is open to debate if ethanol is a direct replacement in these engines though - they cannot run on anything else. In the late 1990's engines started appearing that by design can use either fuel. Ethanol is a direct replacement in these engines, but it is debatable if these engines are unmodified, or factory modified for ethanol.

Small amounts of biofuel are often blended with traditional fuels. The biofuel portion of these fuels is a direct replacement for the fuel they offset, but the total offset is small. For biodiesel, 5% or 20% are commonly approved by various engine manufacturers. See Common ethanol fuel mixtures for information on ethanol.

International efforts

On the other hand, recognizing the importance of bioenergy and its implementation, there are international organizations such as IEA Bioenergy, established in 1978 by the International Energy Agency (IEA), with the aim of improving cooperation and information exchange between countries that have national programs in bioenergy research, development and deployment.

European Union has set a goal for 2008 that each member state should achieve at least 5.75% biofuel usage of all used traffic fuel. By 2006 it looks like most of the members states will not meet this goal.

Energy content of biofuel

Yields of common crops associated with biofuels production

Crop - kg oil/ha - litres oil/ha - lbs oil/acre - US gal/acre

corn (maize) - 145 - 172 - 129 - 18

cashew nut - 148 - 176 - 132 - 19

oats - 183 - 217 - 163 - 23

lupine - 195 - 232 - 175 - 25

kenaf - 230 - 273 - 205 - 29

calendula - 256 - 305 - 229 - 33

cotton - 273 - 325 - 244 - 35

hemp - 305 - 363 - 272 - 39

soybean - 375 - 446 - 335 - 48

coffee - 386 - 459 - 345 - 49

linseed (flax) - 402 - 478 - 359 - 51

hazelnuts - 405 - 482 - 362 - 51

euphorbia - 440 - 524 - 393 - 56

pumpkin - seed - 449 - 534 - 401 - 57

coriander - 450 - 536 - 402 - 57

mustard - seed - 481 - 572 - 430 - 61

camelina - 490 - 583 - 438 - 62

sesame - 585 - 696 - 522 - 74

safflower - 655 - 779 - 585 - 83

rice - 696 - 828 - 622 - 88

tung oil tree - 790 - 940 - 705 - 100

sunflowers - 800 - 952 - 714 - 102

cocoa (cacao) - 863 - 1026 - 771 - 110

peanuts - 890 - 1059 - 795 - 113

opium poppy - 978 - 1163 - 873 - 124

rapeseed - 1000 - 1190 - 893 - 127

olives - 1019 - 1212 - 910 - 129

castor beans - 1188 - 1413 - 1061 - 151

pecan nuts - 1505 - 1791 - 1344 - 191

jojoba - 1528 - 1818 - 1365 - 194

jatropha - 1590 - 1892 - 1420 - 202

macadamia nuts - 1887 - 2246 - 1685 - 240

Brazil nuts - 2010 - 2392 - 1795 - 255

avocado - 2217 - 2638 - 1980 - 282

coconut - 2260 - 2689 - 2018 - 287

Chinese tallow - - 4,700 - - 500

oil palm - 5000 - 5950 - 4465 - 635

The energy content of biodiesel is about 90 percent that of petroleum diesel.

The energy content of ethanol is about 67 percent that of gasoline.

- Note: Chinese Tallow (Sapium sebiferum, or Triadica Sebifera) is also known as the "Popcorn Tree".

Source: Used with permission from the Global Petroleum Club

Typical oil extraction from 100 kg. of oil seeds

Crop - Oil/100kg

Castor Seed - 50 kg

Copra - 62 kg

Cotton Seed - 13 kg

Groundnut Kernel - 42 kg

Mustard - 35 kg

Palm Kernal - 36 kg

Palm Fruit - 20 kg

Rapeseed - 37 kg

Sesame - 50 kg

Soyabean - 14 kg

Sunflower - 32 kg

Source: Petroleum Club (with permission)

Yields of common crops associated with ethanol production

Crop - litres ethanol/ha - US gal/acre

Miscanthus - 14031 - 1500

Switchgrass - 10757 - 1150

Sweet Potatoes - 10000 - 1069

Poplar Wood (hybrid) - 9354 -1000

Sweet Sorghum - 8419 - 900

Sugar Beet - 6679 - 714

Sugar Cane - 6192 - 662

corn (maize) - 3461 - 370

Cassava - 3835 - 410

Wheat - 2591 - 277

Source: Petroleum Club (with permission)

The energy content of ethanol is about 67 percent that of gasoline.

The energy content of biodiesel is about 90 percent that of petroleum diesel.

Further reading

The Potential of Bagasse-Based Cogeneration in the US, Kevin Ho, Columbia University, 2006.

Retrieved from http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Biofuel

End of Wikipedia content

Biofuels Glossary

A - Absorbed (or absorptive) Glass Mat, Additives, Advanced Technology Vehicle (ATV), Aftermarket, Air Quality Management District (AQMD), Air Toxics, Alcohols, Aldehydes, Alternating Current (AC), Alternative Fuel, Alternative Fuels Data Center (AFDC), Alternative Fuels Utilization Program (AFUP), Alternative-Fuel Provider, Alternative Fuels Utilization Program (AFUP), Alternative Fuel Vehicle (AFV), Alternative Motor Fuels Act of 1988 (AMFA), Ampere/Amperage (Amp), Aromatics, Automatic Switchover

B – Battery, Battery Life, Benzene, Bi-Fuel Vehicle, Biochemical Conversion, Biodiesel, Biomass, Butane, Butyl Alcohol

C - California Air Resources Board (CARB), California Low Emission Vehicle Program, Capacity, Carbon Dioxide (CO2), Carbon Monoxide (CO), Cells, Charge/Charging, Charging Station, Charge Inlet, Clean Air Act/Clean Air Act Amendments (CAA/CAAA), Clean Cities Program, Clean Diesel, Clean Fuel, Clean Fuel Fleet (CFF), Clean Fuel Vehicle (CFV), Closed-Loop Carburetion, Compressed Natural Gas (CNG), Compression Ignition, Conductive Charging, Congestion Mitigation and Air Quality Improvement (CMAQ) Program, Consolidated Metropolitan Statistical Area (CMSA), Controller, Converted or Conversion Vehicle, Cooperative Research and Development Agreement (CRADA), Corporate Average Fuel Economy (CAFE), Corrosion Inhibitors, Cycle, Cycle Life

D - Dedicated Natural Gas Vehicle, Dedicated Vehicle, Deep Discharge, Depth of Discharge, Diesel Fuel, Dimethyl Ether (DME), Discharge Rate, Domestic Fuel, Direct Current (DC), Driveline Efficiency, Dual-Fuel Vehicle, Dynamometer

E - E85, Electric Vehicle (EV), Electrolyte, Emissions, Energy Density, Energy/Fuel Diversity, Energy Policy Act of 1992 (EPACT), Environmental Protection Agency (EPA), Ethanol (also know as Ethyl Alcohol or Grain Alcohol, CH3 CH2 0H), Ethyl Tertiary Butly Ether (ETBE), EV (Electric Vehicle)

F - Flexible Fuel Vehicle (FFV), Fuel Cell

G - Greenhouse Effect, Gross Vehicle Weight (GVW)

H - Heavy-Duty Vehicle, Horsepower, Hybrid Vehicle, Hydrocarbons (HC), Hydrometer

I - Inductive Charging, Infrastructure, Inherently Low Emission Vehicle (ILEV), Intermodal Surface Transportation Efficiency Act of 1981 (ISTEA), Inverter, Ion

K - Kilowatt (kW), Kilowatt-Hour (kWh)

L - Lead-Acid Battery, Light-Duty Vehicles, Liquified Natural Gas (LNG), Liquefied Petroleum Gas (LPG), Lithium-Ion Battery, Lithium Polymer Battery, LNG to CNG Station, Low-Emission Vehicle (LEV), Lubricity

M - Medium-Duty Vehicle, Methanol (also known as Methyl Alcohol, Wood Alcohol, CH3 0H), Methyl Tertiary Butyl Ether (MTBE), Miles Per Gallon Gasoline Equivalent (MPGGE), Miles Per Kilowatt-Hour (MPkWh), Mobile Source Emissions

N - N Hour Rate, National Ambient Air Quality Standards (NAAQS), National Low-Emission Vehicle (NLEV) Program, Natural Gas, Nickel-Cadmium Battery, Nickel Metal Hydride Battery, Nitrogen Oxide (NOx), Non-Attainment Area, Non-Road Vehicle (off-road vehicle)

O – OEM, Office of Mobile Sources, Ohms, Open-Loop Fuel Control, Original Equipment Manufacturer (OEM), Oxides of Nitrogen (NOx), Oxygenate, Oxygenated Fuels, Ozone, Ozone Transport Region (OTR)

P - P-Series Fuels, Parallel Drivetrain, Parallel Starter/Alternator, Particulate Matter (PM), Particulate Trap, Photovoltaics, Portable Fueling Systems, Power, Powertrain, Power Density, Private Fleet, Propane, Propulsion System, Public Fueling Station, Purpose-Built Vehicle

R – Range, Rate of Charge, Reformulated Gasoline (RFG), Refueling Emissions, Regenerative Braking, Regulator, Reid Vapor Pressure (RVP), Retrofit, Resistance, Rolling Losses, Rolling Resistance Coefficient

S - Sealed Lead-Acid, Series Drivetrain, Smart Charging, Smart Metering, Spark Ignition Engine, Specific Energy, Specific Power, State Implementation Plan (SIP), State of Charge, Sulfur Dioxide (SO2), Super Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle (SULEV)

T - Tailpipe Emissions, TAME (Tiertiary Amyl Methyl Ether), Therm, TLEV (Transitional Low Emission Vehicle), Torque, Toxic Emission, Toxic Substance

U - Ultra-Low-Emission Vehicle (ULEV), U.S. Department of Energy (DOE), U.S. Department of Transportation (DOT), U.S. Environmental Protection Agency (EPA)

V - Variable Fuel Vehicle (VFV), Vehicle Conversion, Volatile Organic Compound (VOC), Volt, Voluntary Mobile Source Emission Reduction Program

W – W, Watt

X - Xylene

Z - Zinc-Air Battery, ZEV (ZERO EMISSION VEHICLE)

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